Work Package Food Security
Introduction
The Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) defines food security as existing “when all people at all times have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active life”. Therefore, it can be argued that people are food insecure when such access is absent or uncertain. Thus, food insecurity is often considered to range from severe (hunger) to mild (worrying about not having enough food).
Although the UK as a whole is considered food secure, survey evidence and the growing number of food banks point to increasing levels of food insecurity at the individual and local levels. The Scottish Government has become increasingly concerned about food insecurity and, in 2017, started to collect data on it through the Scottish Health Survey. It estimates that eight per cent of the Scottish population suffered some form of food insecurity over the previous year.
The FAO reports that uncertain access to food can give rise to multiple forms of malnutrition, such as: child stunting and wasting; and overweight and obesity. Food insecurity has also been associated with high levels of financial and social deprivation. Moreover, there is evidence that diet-related ill-health and economic deprivation can reinforce one another and thereby potentially exacerbate food insecurity. Such evidence suggests that the causes of individual and household food insecurity may be complex and overlapping, and that attempts to tackle food insecurity must take account of that complexity.
This research investigates food insecurity in Scotland in three ways. First, by examining how individuals and community groups experience and manage food insecurity. Secondly, by improving our understanding of its distribution. Lastly, by evaluating the impacts of measures taken to reduce and eradicate it.
Aim of Research
Originally, this research had two main aims. The first was to establish the nature of household food insecurity in Scotland, what societal sectors and communities are affected by and respond to it, how it affects health and wellbeing, and what can be done about it. The second aim was to examine the practicability of producing maps of the range and availability of culturally acceptable foods in Scotland.
Changes that occurred after the research started, most notably the decision of the Scottish Government to collect data on food insecurity, prompted revisions to those aims. The four revised research aims are as follows. First, to examine the ways in which food insecurity is experienced and managed over time by food insecure adults. Secondly, to examine the practicability of mapping food insecurity and responses to it. Thirdly, to explore children's experiences of food insecurity and the efficacy of attempts to tackle it. Lastly, to understand motivations and barriers to local food growing, assess the potential of local food growing to tackle local food insecurity and to understand the role that local food growing could play in the creation of a sustainable local food system and economy.
Progress
Work was undertaken in three research streams. The final round of interviews was conducted for our cohort study into the lived experience of food insecurity. The data gathered highlight the importance of economic, social and embodied cultural capital in enabling people to find pathways to food security. The importance of the latter two was emphasised in participants’ accounts of their experiences during the Covid-19 lockdowns. Our research identified factors that appear to be common to participants with similar Food Insecurity Experience Scale scores. It also found that a similar severity of food insecurity can be experienced very differently by different people and postulates that there may be a dimension of food insecurity – which we have identified tentatively as its perceived ‘intensity’ – that is not captured by existing measures. Policy reflections and proposals were developed from this work and shared with stakeholders.
Secondly, we investigated how providers of emergency food to families with school-age children fared during the Covid-19 lockdowns. Interview data highlighted a perception that the lockdowns exacerbated pre-existing difficulties and that families faced increased uncertainty due to the economic and social disruption. Collaborative and best practices were identified, as was a need for these to continue once the pandemic is over. Interviewees supported moving away from foodbanks to more dignified means of tackling food insecurity, and analysis again suggested that attention to economic, social and embodied cultural capital provision will all be required. The heterogeneity and fragility of third-sector provision were emphasised, along with the perceived need for such provision to continue due to its flexibility and ‘distance’ from authority.
Research also examined how food insecurity, food systems and sustainability are related, and enquired into ways in which the Covid-19 pandemic drew attention to the ways in which household food security is managed by local actors. Researchers were involved in an advisory capacity with three local food partnerships. Evidence on addressing food insecurity has been provided to policy makers, civil society organisations and special enquiries. Collaboration with EU partners led to an EU-wide survey into changing behaviours around food as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic.
Highlights
- Results from the EU-wide survey (see above) helped to inform Economic and Social Research Council funded research into the impacts of Covid-19 on UK food and nutrition survey.
- Presentations to the British Sociological Association addressed interactions between food insecurity, perceived health and social isolation, and provided evidence that the 2017-19 Scottish Health Surveys are likely to have under-reported the prevalence of food insecurity in Scotland.
This research continued to generate new insights into the nature of food insecurity in Scotland. Although face-to-face research had to cease as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, it proved possible to resume data collection remotely.
The second round of interviews for the small cohort study of adults with experience of food insecurity was completed and the data analysed. The analysis produced three sets of preliminary findings. First, it revealed limitations in the quantitative data collected on food insecurity in Scotland between 2017 and 2019; limitations which appear to be confirmed by data from the 2019-20 Family Resources Survey. Secondly, it demonstrated that the felt intensity of food insecurity varied in ways that could not be explained by its severity (e.g. as measured by the Food insecurity Experience Scale). Lastly, it revealed interactions between different forms of ‘capital’ – especially economic, social and embodied cultural capital – in shaping respondents’ experiences and routes into and out of food insecurity. These issues will be investigated further in the third round of interviews in Programme Year 6.
There has been significant progress on three of the four revised aims for this research. One aim is being reviewed in light of the impact of the coronavirus pandemic.
Our work to understand the ways in which food insecurity is experienced and managed over time by food insecure individuals has progressed well. The first round of in-depth interviews was conducted with 55 food insecure adults throughout Scotland. The interview data have been analysed and a report on that analysis shared with stakeholders. The unique recruitment strategy pursued by this research is demonstrating its worth, as new insights are emerging concerning the relationship between food insecurity, social security and people’s health and caring responsibilities. The second round of interviews started in February 2020.
The analysis of data on food banks and other organisations that provide emergency food aid in Scotland was completed and written up for dissemination. We found that food banks cluster in urban areas with high levels of income deprivation and in remote small towns, which tend to be service centres for areas with high levels of access deprivation. The data also allowed us to estimate the proportion of the Scottish population that may have recourse to food aid each year and to identify priorities for future research. This aim is now complete.
Our research into children's experiences of food insecurity and the efficacy of programmes to tackle it did not proceed as planned. Coronavirus struck when detailed implementation planning and preparation were at an advanced stage. The decision was taken to review this work, in light of stakeholders’ priorities, early in programme year 5, when Scotland would be further along the route out of the crisis.
Work to assess the potential of local food growing to tackle local food insecurity and contribute to the creation of sustainable local food systems and economies has progressed well. Data gathering was completed in June 2019. Findings were presented at two conferences and written up as policy briefing notes and supplied to RESAS for further circulation. A blog has been written for the SEFARI website.
Highlights
- Our work to understand the ways in which food insecurity is experienced and managed over time by food insecure individuals is producing new insights concerning the relationship between food insecurity, social security and people’s health and caring responsibilities.
- Liz Dinnie attended community food events (Tarland Food and Music Festival, September 2019; 'Grow, cook, connect' in October 2019) to share findings with stakeholders.
- A summary analysis of data on food banks and other organisations that provide emergency food aid in Scotland was presented by David Watts at a food insecurity measurement seminar in Edinburgh on 25 November 2019 ('The Reckoning').
- RD research staff have continued to make significant contributions to academic debate in their areas of expertise. For details, see section 3 (selected outputs) below.
Development work proceeded on studies that will fulfil revised research aims one and three. The first – an examination of the ways in which food insecurity is experienced and managed over time by food insecure individuals – was developed, a sampling frame identified, and permission secured to recruit from respondents to the 2017 Scottish Health Survey who had identified themselves as being food insecure. Development work on the other study, an exploration of children's experiences of food insecurity and the efficacy of attempts to tackle it, was begun in consultation with project stakeholders.
Publicly available data on responses to food insecurity (aim 2) were gathered and analysed. Significant concentrations of providers of emergency food aid were found in urban areas with high levels of income deprivation and in remote small towns. This suggests that food insecure people living in remote rural areas, which tend to suffer from high levels of access deprivation and poor coverage by supermarket delivery services, may have access to food aid in ‘nearby’ small towns.
Community food hubs in Glasgow and Edinburgh were visited and participants and service users interviewed. Community food events in Glasgow and Aberdeen were attended. Development of Aberdeen’s Local Food Growing Strategy was supported through steering group membership. Pilot research with citizen scientists into local food growing was completed. Three reports were produced, covering local food growing and sense of community, local food outlets, and local food supply chains. Presentations were made to the local authority environmental policy team and to local food growing groups.
Highlights
- Collection of data on food aid organisations and premises in Scotland
- Reports produced on local food growing and sense of community, local food outlets, and local food supply chains
- Input to development of Local Food Growing Strategy and management of food growing fund
Proposed changes to the research aims were finalised with the Scottish Government and the Steering Committee. The research team worked on the detailed design of the work required to fulfil the revised research aims.
The review of studies which sought to map the availability of healthy and unhealthy foods in High Income Countries concluded that it is not practicable to develop a robust map of food availability in Scotland. Moreover, it was found that few studies examined supermarket home delivery services. Such services were examined in Scotland, using publicly available information, to ascertain whether any areas could be classified as food ‘deserts’. This examination, along with the review of food availability, were written up in a report for policy-makers.
Qualitative interviews were conducted with food growers in Aberdeen and Aberdeenshire on motivations and barriers to local food growing. The analysis showed that, while there are many benefits to growing your own food (including social, economic and health benefits), the potential of local food growing initiatives to contribute to food security is limited by: access to growing spaces; time; knowledge; start-up costs; and the absence of local food systems. Growers thought that the enhancement of household food security needed to be driven by the State rather than the voluntary sector, and should be embedded in wider policy mechanisms to tackle the causes of poverty.
Highlights
- Desk study to identify possible food ‘deserts’ in Scotland completed
- Research with food growers, on motivations and barriers to local food growing and the potential of local food growing initiatives to contribute to food security, completed
A Steering Committee was formed with membership drawn from NHS Health Scotland, Food Standards Scotland, Poverty Alliance, Nourish Scotland and the Scottish Government (including Poverty and Social Exclusion, Food and Drink and RESAS). A scoping paper was produced, in consultation with the Steering Committee, to establish a common understanding of the key concepts that the research will work with and the phenomena that it will investigate.
Soon after the research began the Scottish policy landscape developed rapidly. For example, questions on food insecurity were added to the annual Scottish Health Survey from April 2017. This entailed the development, in consultation with the Scottish Government and the Steering Committee, of revised research aims (q.v. ‘Research Aims’ section, above).
A review of research that has sought to map the availability of healthy and unhealthy food was undertaken. Data on which parts of remote and rural Scotland might be classified as food 'deserts' was gathered and analysed.
Academic, policy and grey literature was reviewed to identify the role and extent of local and community food growing in Scotland, the policy background to local food growing and the potential of food growing to contribute to food security, well-being and community resilience. The review also identified food-growing networks and support organisations and policy mechanisms to encourage local food growing. It highlighted the lack of research on how community food growing contributes to local food networks, the socio-economic characteristics of those involved in growing, and the barriers to getting involved in food growing.
Highlights
- Revision of research aims in response to developments in the policy landscape
- Literature on food ‘deserts’ and ‘food ‘swamps’ examined and data on potential food ‘deserts’ in Scotland gathered
- Evidence on the potential for local food growing to contribute to food security and community resilience was reviewed
Future Activities
Work in this deliverable links into the new RESAS Strategic Research Programme in three main ways. Engagement with a broad and diverse range of stakeholders facilitated the development of collaborative links with plant and food scientists and research into food systems approaches to sustainable diets (projects JHI-B1-3 novel crops and JHI-B4-1).
Work on community aspects of addressing food insecurity continues in project E1-1 (Rural Recovery), and with a Macaulay Development Trust Fellowship and Macaulay Development Trust studentship. The implementation of the Good Food Nation Bill (e.g. through the development of Local Food Plans) ensures that food systems change remains a policy-relevant issue.
The research links directly into project RI-B4-1: building food and nutrition security in Scotland. This new project aims to inform policies to build food and nutrition security in Scotland by identifying barriers to, and potential mechanisms for, achieving them. Its objectives are to:
- Understand food supply chain issues that can exacerbate food insecurity, and how and why ‘informal’ food supply networks develop and function in response
- Conduct a systematic review of studies and mechanisms that have sought to eradicate the need for food aid, with particular reference to: quantifying their impact and value for money; assessing their relevance to Scotland; providing dignified alternatives to charitable provision
- Build a better understanding of the ‘supply side’ by analysing food aid distribution in Scotland and identifying opportunities for supplying healthier and lower-environmental-impact Scottish produce
- Build a better understanding of the ‘demand side’ by exploring what people facing food insecurity actually consume and by identifying with them, as appropriate, opportunities to increase consumption of healthier and lower-environmental-impact Scottish produce
- Assess the characteristics of potential alternatives to charitable provision that may attract Scottish consumers, and consumers’ motivations for and barriers to their use, through a large-scale survey and choice experiments
Selected Outputs
Publications
Nudging, formulating new products, and the lifecourse: A qualitative assessment of the viability of three methods for reducing Scottish meat consumption for health, ethical, and environmental reasons. (2019) – paper published in Appetite by McBey, David et al.
“Things like tinned burgers and tinned macaroni, I ate as a kid-I would not look at it twice!” Understanding changing eating practices across the lifecourse (2020) – paper published in Food, Culture & Society by John McKenzie and David Watts. For an open access, pre-publication version of this paper, click here.
Food ideals, food rules and the subjective construction of a healthy diet (2021) – paper published in Food and Foodways by McKenzie and Watts
The Trouble with Community: How ‘Sense of Community’ Influences Participation in Formal, Community‐Led Organisations and Rural Governance (2020) paper published in Sociologia Ruralis by Dinnie and Fischer
Food ideals, food rules and the subjective construction of a healthy diet (2021) – paper published in Food and Foodways by J.S. McKenzie and D. Watts
What are the priority research questions for digital agriculture? (2022) – paper published in Land Use Policy by J. Ingram et. al.
Blogs
Community gardens: Providing shoots of support but not alleviating the root causes of food poverty
Presentations & reports
Elizabeth Dinnie, Alba Juarez Bourke and Carol Kyle (2018) ‘“It’s not really about food …”: food growing, food justice and sustainability’. Paper presented at the International Association of People-Environment Studies.
Elizabeth Dinnie, Alba Juarez Bourke and Carol Kyle (2018) ‘“It’s not really about food …”: food growing, food justice and sustainability’. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Royal Geographical Society.
John McKenzie and David Watts (2019) ‘Making unheard voices heard: methodological and ethical challenges in designing research with young people aged 12 -18 years old about their experiences of food insecurity’. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Sociological Association.
David Watts, Jonathan Hopkins and Karolina Gombert (2018) ‘Is it possible to identify geographical aspects of food insecurity in Scotland?’ Briefing paper.
Presentation “Urban food production and just food systems – barriers to integration” by Liz Dinnie at the 2019 annual conference of the Royal Geographical Society.
Presentation “Food growing and sustainable food systems: Linking everyday practices with macro-social change” (June 2019) by Liz Dinnie to the British Sociological Association.
Presentation “‘Alternative’ food networks as a Weberian ideal-type: findings from a survey of food and drink enterprises in Scotland’ by David Watts and John McKenzie at the 2019 annual conference of the British Sociological Association.
Presentation “Making unheard voices heard: Ethical and methodological challenges in designing research with children about their experiences of food insecurity’ by John McKenzie and David Watts at the 2019 annual conference of the British Sociological Association.
“Report on Adult Food Insecurity in Scotland Study” by John McKenzie and David Watts, reporting on the first round of interviews with food insecure adults for project stakeholders.
Report “Food insecurity and the ‘liberal’ welfare state. A preliminary analysis of food banks in Scotland” by David Watts et al. analysing data on food banks and other organisations that provide emergency food aid in Scotland.
Conference paper 'Re-thinking the relationship between food insecurity, health and social isolation' given at Nutrition Society Live 2020, E740.
Conference paper ‘‘Time for transformation? Technology and tradition in food growing practices in urban areas’ given at International Association People-Environment Studies 2020 Virtual Conference.
Report The ways in which food insecurity is experienced and managed: a small-scale cohort study with adults in Scotland: Report from the first round of interviews sent to Stakeholders.
Report Overview of results in progress prepared for the World Pandemic Research Network.
Report Changes in food behaviours during Covid-19 first wave.
Report Literature review of the evidence-base of controlled environment agriculture and food systems change.
A paper, “Re-thinking the relationship between food insecurity, health and social isolation”, by John McKenzie and David Watts, was read at the Annual Conference of the British Sociological Association.
A paper, “Right to food in Scotland: Can it be achieved?”, by John McKenzie and David Watts, was read at the Annual Conference of the British Sociological Association.
A paper, “Measuring food insecurity in a ‘liberal’ welfare state: evidence from Scotland”, by David Watts and John McKenzie, was read at Food & Food Systems in a time of Insecurity: the 7th British Sociological Association Food Study Group Conference.
Report, The ways in which food insecurity is experienced and managed: a small-scale cohort study with adults in Scotland. Report from the first round of interviews, sent to stakeholders for comment.
Report, The ways in which food insecurity is experienced and managed: a small-scale cohort study with adults in Scotland. Report from the second round of interviews, sent to stakeholders for comment.
Report, The ways in which food insecurity is experienced and managed: a small-scale cohort study with adults in Scotland. Report from the third and final round of interviews, sent to stakeholders for comment.
Report, Experiences of staff and volunteers involved in emergency food provisioning for families with school-aged children during Scotland’s Covid-19 lockdowns, sent to stakeholders for comment.
Research Deliverable Lead
Dr David Watts
Research Deliverable Staff
Professor Julian Mercer
Dr Liz Dinnie
Dr John McKenzie